Black Pepper Uses and Plant Monograph
From black pepper shakers on diner tables to freshly cracked pepper at high-end restaurants, there’s rarely a meal that is served without the option of adding a bit of this spice. Pepper has been in common use for thousands of years in the Old World and is the most popular spice of our modern day: accounting for one-fifth of the total spice trade in the world!
Black Pepper Uses & Plant Profile Summary
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Botanical Name: Piper nigrum
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Family: Piperaceae
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Parts Used: fruit/drupe (peppercorn)
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Energetics: warming, drying
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Taste: pungent
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Plant Properties: stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant, carminative, antispasmodic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, immunomodulator
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Plant Uses: food seasoning, fevers, mucus congestion, slow or stagnant circulation, hemorrhoids, gentle laxative, arthritis, increase bioavailability of other herbs
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Plant Preparations: food spice, tea, tincture, electuary, essential oil
As popular as it is, black pepper is often thought of as a simple spice and has been largely forgotten as a medicinal herb. But the benefits of peppercorns go far beyond being a table spice!
A little history of “Black Gold”
The history of pepper begins in prehistoric India and Southeast Asia where the pepper vine is native. It appears to have been in use in India for at least the past 4,000 years but presumably much longer. Black pepper then spread to the ancient Egyptians and Romans, and it later rose to prominence during the height of the early European spice trade routes.
Our scant knowledge of the use of peppercorns in ancient Egypt is limited to one of the greatest pharaohs, Ramesses II, who was found to have black peppercorns stuffed in his nostrils as part of the mummification process following his death in 1213 BCE.
Flash forward a few hundred years, and we have a Roman cookbook from the third century that contains black pepper in many of its recipes — although it was probably a very expensive spice at the time.
When Rome was attacked by Attila the Hun and King Alaric I in the fifth century, both conquerors demanded 3,000 pounds of peppercorns each amongst the plunder. Although Rome quickly complied with their demands, they attacked the city anyway: leading to the fall of Rome.
During the Middle Ages, peppercorns were considered an important trade good. They were referred to as “black gold” and were even used like money to pay taxes and dowries.
Energetics
Black pepper is spicy (pungent), acrid, and drying. It warms things up! If you bite into a whole peppercorn, you will feel these warming qualities on your tongue. If you eat a meal with lots of black pepper, you’ll feel that warming sensation spread through your core. It’s also a stimulant: helping to move stuck and stagnant fluids of the body. It can stimulate the production and movement of mucus in the lungs and sinuses. It can also quicken circulation by increasing blood vessel size and has historically been used for signs of stagnant circulation (e.g., cold hands and feet).
“Galen, in treating of the pepper in his work on Simples, merely says of its medicinal powers, that it is strongly calefacient [warming] and desiccative [drying].”
- Paulus Aegineta
What’s in a pepper? Long Pepper vs. Black Pepper
Historically, long pepper (Piper longum) was used interchangeably with black pepper (Piper nigrum). Although they are in the same genus, the fruits look dramatically different and you’ll find that the taste of long pepper is dramatically hotter than that of black pepper. This monograph is specifically about Piper nigrum (black pepper).
Differentiating Black, White, Green, Red, and “Pink” Pepper
You can commonly find four different colors of black pepper: including black, white, green, and red. You can also find “pink” pepper that comes from a different plant.
Black, white, green, and rarely red peppercorns come from the same plant but are prepared differently to achieve the different look and slightly different taste.
Black peppercorns are harvested when unripe, boiled briefly, and then dried in the sun.
White peppercorns are harvested when fully ripe and then have the outer flesh removed so that only the seed remains.
Green peppercorns are harvested when unripe and then treated to preserve the green coloring either through freeze-drying, fermentation, or other means.
Peppercorns are rarely left to mature so that they turn red and then are preserved to retain that red coloring. These are very delicate, however, so it’s hard to find them in commerce.
“Pink” peppercorns come from a different plant altogether. Schinus molle (Peruvian peppertree) is native to regions of South America. Fruits of the related S. terebinthifolia (Brazilian pepper) are sometimes also used. While similar in size and appearance, “pink” pepper has a tart and fruity flavor. These “pink” fruits are sometimes blended with black peppercorns in commerce. These fruits lack the “generally regarded as safe” (GRAS) status given by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and they may be poisonous to livestock and may cause digestive upset in children.
Digestion
Many people add black pepper to their meals simply because they enjoy the flavor. But black pepper has long intentionally been added to meals for the greater benefit of supporting healthy digestion, especially for meals of heavy and/or rich foods like beef and other red meats.
Its warming and stimulating properties have a gentle stimulating and laxative effect and can be especially beneficial for those with signs of cold or stagnant digestion. Signs of cold and stagnant digestion include feeling cold, feeling heavy after meals (especially in the stomach), having a thick coating on the tongue, and experiencing slow transit time.
Black pepper is often used for other digestive complaints including diarrhea and gastrointestinal infections.
“Black Pepper is a remedy I value very highly. As a gastric stimulant it certainly has no superior, and for this purpose we use it in congestive chills, in cholera morbus, and other cases of a similar character.”
- John Scudder
1870
Colds and the Flu
Black pepper’s warming and stimulating characteristics make it useful for a variety of cold and flu symptoms, especially those relating to coldness.
As a stimulating diaphoretic, it can be relied upon to support the fever process when someone feels cold with shivering and chills.
It also gets fluids moving in the body and can be relied upon when there is stuck mucus in the sinuses or lungs. It’s important to look for signs of coldness and stagnation in the person to indicate the use of black pepper. It could cause irritation if the person already has signs of heat and dryness.
“The irritating properties of pepper stimulate circulation and the flow of mucus. It is most appropriate for a cough with thick mucus, but inappropriate for a dry, irritable cough with little expectoration. Directions: Place a teaspoon of black pepper and a tablespoon of honey in the bottom of a cup, and fill it with boiling water. Let it steep for 10-15 minutes. Take small sips as needed.”
- Paul Bergner
Folk Remedies Database
Arthritis
Black pepper was historically used as a common remedy for arthritis, especially arthritis that is worse with the damp and cold.
A 2020 study showed that a combination of Curcuma longa (turmeric), Zingiber officinale (ginger), and black pepper reduced inflammatory markers as well as the over-the-counter nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) naproxen in patients with grade 2 and 3 (minimal-to-moderate) knee osteoarthritis.1
Bioavailability and Formulations
Perhaps most amazing is black pepper’s power to increase the bioavailability of our herbs and foods. In other words, adding a bit of black pepper to herbal formulas or to our dinner plate means that we are going to more fully digest and extract the nutrients and other constituents in the food or medicine.
An article in the International Journal of Recent Advances in Pharmaceutical Research reports that black pepper acts as a circulatory stimulant by increasing the size of blood vessels, which helps to better transport nutrients around the body. It modulates the physical properties of cell membranes, which helps to transport nutrients through barriers. It also produces a thermogenic (warming) effect in the gastrointestinal tract, which increases blood supply to the area.2 I love that this scientific description is simply another way of speaking about the warming and stimulating qualities of black pepper!
Many of the studies done on increased bioavailability have focused on piperine, an isolated constituent of black pepper. The most well known example is piperine’s ability to increase the bioavailability of curcumin, an important medicinal component of turmeric. Besides increasing the bioavailability of herbs, it has been shown that piperine can dramatically increase absorption of selenium, B vitamins, beta-carotenes, iron, and other nutrients.3,4,5,6
In Formulas: Trikatu
Black pepper originally comes from India, where it has been in use for at least 4,000 years. What we’re just beginning to figure out about black pepper’s ability to increase the bioavailability of nutrients has long been known and practiced in Ayurveda — the traditional medicine system of India and Nepal.
Trikatu is a popular formula in Ayurveda that is composed of equal parts black pepper, long pepper, and ginger.
Trikatu is used to increase warmth, increase circulation, and break up congested mucus. Trikatu is also commonly added in small amounts to other formulas. Not only does this help to increase bioavailability of the herbal formulas, it also acts as an activator or diffusive herb, similar to Samuel Thompson’s use of Capsicum annuum (cayenne pepper) in North America in the late 1700s and early 1800s.
Eclectic herbalist Harvey Felter recommended black pepper as a corrigent (flavor and activation companion) for herbs that cause griping or cramping, such as cold laxatives.
For Immune System Modulation and Cancer
In vitro studies have shown that black pepper has complex and significant abilities to modulate the immune system. Researchers of one set of studies concluded, “Our findings strongly suggest that black pepper exerts immunomodulatory roles and antitumor activities, and…can promote the maintenance of a healthy immune system.”7
While there haven’t yet been any human clinical trials regarding black pepper’s effects on preventing or treating cancer, there have been several interesting in vitro studies showing possible benefits. Black pepper has exhibited anticancer effects against a number of cell lines from breast, colon, cervical, and prostate cancers.8
One review of black pepper studies reported that it or its constituents were shown to induce apoptosis (cell death) and inhibit cell proliferation in cancer.9 Black pepper has also been shown to have chemosensitizing agents, meaning that it may help cells be more susceptible to control by chemotherapies.10
Plant Preparations
Since black pepper dramatically increases the bioavailability of many nutrients, I like to have it freshly ground onto every meal I eat. As a result, pepper is probably my most commonly used herb!
To get the most benefit out of your black pepper, buy whole peppercorns and grind them as needed. Once they are ground, the aromatic principles evaporate quickly, making old ground pepper of little benefit.
India, which has the most developed traditional use of black pepper, uses it in powdered form, pills or tablets, and paste.
The dosage of black pepper is anywhere from 1–15 grams per day.
Peppercorns extract well in alcohol. Michael Moore recommends the tincture of dried peppercorns be prepared at 1:5 with 65% alcohol. The recommended dosage is 5–15 drops.
“I am black on the outside, clad in a wrinkled cover, Yet within I bear a burning marrow. I season delicacies, the banquets of kings, and the luxuries of the table, Both the sauces and the tenderized meats of the kitchen. But you will find in me no quality of any worth, Unless your bowels have been rattled by my gleaming marrow.”
- A riddle authored by Saint Aldhelm a 7th-century Bishop of Sherborne
Special Considerations
- Large doses could cause nausea and digestive upset.
- Piperine, the extract of black pepper, has been studied extensively and is readily available for purchase. This preparation has far more special considerations than the whole herb. The use and considerations of this extract are beyond the scope of this monograph.
Footnotes
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