Saffron Uses and Plant Monograph

Saffron is a spice I’ve become familiar with growing up, whether it was by sharing saffron milk tea with family, sharing a meal of saffron rice with Persian friends, or being gifted with dried saffron stigmas and petals. Saffron has been hailed as the “King of Spices” for its high price; my mother used to remind me that it is more expensive than gold, and it was treated as such with the luxury of having its own storage cabinet.

It is said to have originated in Iran, Turkey, Greece, and Central Asia, and its use has been recorded as far back as 50,000 years ago.^1,2 The countries that produce the most saffron are Iran, currently with the highest share in production at 88%, as well as Afghanistan, India, Greece, Azerbaijan, Morocco, and Spain.³ Saffron and its extracts have widespread uses as a therapeutic agent, food additive, coloring and flavoring agent, textile dye, in cosmetics and perfumes.^4,5 Its popularity as a cultivated herb is due to its benefits to economies, as well as its low water consumption needs and its easy storage.⁶

Saffron as a Powerful Antioxidant

Highlighting the antioxidant effect of saffron is worthwhile as this action owes to its therapeutic mechanisms across several body systems. Disease states are often resulting from an imbalance between the production and scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS), where increased oxidation of biomolecules during metabolism results in functional changes and injury.⁷ The role of saffron being a strong antioxidant is its ability to act as a ROS scavenger and maintain homeostasis in the body. Saffron was found to have a higher antioxidant profile compared to foods such as carrots and tomatoes, while having two times higher antioxidant activity at the same concentrations.⁸

Saffron as a Mood Lifter

While saffron may not be the herb that immediately comes to mind when thinking of nervines, there has been extensive research done showing its antidepressant effects. The sight of these flowers in and of themselves brings up positive emotions, with the juxtaposition of the purple and red-orange colors low-growing across fields.

A systematic review including 12 studies on the efficacy of saffron on mild and moderate depression was conducted between 2005–2017. These trials compared a saffron extract (petal and/or stigma) treatment group to a placebo group or to a pharmaceutical treatment group of either fluoxetine or citalopram over a period of 6–12 weeks.⁹

At a dosage of either 30 mg/day or 50 mg/day, it was found that the depression scale scores of the saffron treatment groups were more effective than placebo with a higher remission (an absence of symptoms) and response rate (defined as a reduction of 50% or more of symptoms).¹⁰

On the other hand, the saffron and pharmaceutical treatment groups found that the response and remission rates were similar. This may be clinically relevant due to saffron extract having similar therapeutic effects as pharmaceutical antidepressants but without the unwanted side effects, which were less likely to occur in the saffron treatment groups.¹¹

In a pilot trial, it was found that saffron petal was significantly more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms after 1 week and was found to be equally efficacious compared to fluoxetine and saffron stigma.¹² As the saffron petal is a cheaper alternative to the stigma, it would be of benefit to look further into its use as an antidepressant.

The effects of saffron as an antidepressant in reducing depressive symptoms may be due to its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions serving as a neuroprotective agent.¹³ The mechanisms by which saffron, more specifically crocin and safranal, is proposed to have its antidepressant effects is through the inhibition of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin reuptake by synapses.¹⁴  

Saffron for Digestive Support

Saffron can address a range of ailments affecting the digestive system, such as reducing stomach cramping, and modulating appetite — both stimulating appetite and acting as an appetite suppressant.^15,16 It also acts as an astringent, which serves to tonify the gut lining and tissues of the digestive tract and reduce excess secretions.

The stomach lining may be protected by saffron due to its antioxidant effects on the mucosa lining, leading to a reduction in gastric ulcers induced by stress and histamine.¹⁷ Another stomach condition, such as ulcerative colitis, may find relief with the use of saffron as it is an anti-inflammatory.¹⁸

Research has been conducted on the potential use of saffron extract as a chemotherapeutic drug for colorectal cancers. This may be due to its cytotoxic effects on the p53 independent paths, leading to apoptosis of cancer cells as well as antiproliferative-specific targeting of cancerous cells.¹⁹  

In vivo studies on gastric and hepatocellular carcinoma cells found crocin and crocetin to have a cytotoxic effect on cancer cells, thereby reducing tumor growth as well as regulating proteins involved in gene mutations. Further research and human trials are needed to better understand the effects of saffron extracts on cancers of the digestive system.²⁰

A human trial was conducted on 76 participants with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease where the treatment group was administered 100 mg saffron tablets compared to placebo. It was found that the saffron treatment group resulted in reduced levels of leptin (which may indicate insulin sensitivity), malondialdehyde, high sensitive  C reactive protein and an increase in total antioxidant capacity after 12 weeks. This is significant as C reactive protein is an inflammatory marker in the body, and this reduction may indicate the role of saffron as an anti-inflammatory whereas malondialdehyde is associated with liver disease as it is a marker of oxidative stress and lipid damage.²¹

Saffron for Cardiovascular Health

When it comes to a herb that is protective of the cardiovascular system, saffron is not lacking by any means. It is said to be nutritive to the heart and has the ability to increase blood flow.²² It has a number of beneficial cardioprotective properties such as improving the lipid profile, decreasing blood pressure, and inhibiting atherosclerotic plaque formation.²³

Its hypotensive action was examined in a week-long clinical study with 11 participants, where it was found that administration of a higher dose of 400 mg of saffron extract resulted in the standing systolic blood pressure average reduction of 11 mmHg and standing arterial pressure by 4 mmHg.²⁴  

Saffron and Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by amyloid-β peptide fibrils accumulating in the brain and resulting in damage to the neurons due to oxidation. This shows the relevance of the antioxidant effect of saffron in association with its anti-amyloidogenic activity in having a preventative role in this pathophysiology.²⁵

One randomized, placebo-controlled trial on 46 adults found that 15 mg of saffron taken twice daily over a period of 16 weeks had shown significant results in improving cognitive function in comparison to a placebo group of Alzheimer’s patients.²⁶ Saffron crude extract, crocetin and crocin derivative compounds were found to result in fewer amyloid-β peptide aggregate formations in vivo.²⁷

Another trial over a period of 22 weeks consisting of 54 participants with mild to moderate Alzheimer’s compared a saffron treatment group at a dose of 30 mg a day with the pharmaceutical drug donepezil treatment group. Researchers found that the saffron treatment group experienced similar cognitive function benefits as the donepezil treatment group. A significant difference in adverse effects was reported between the saffron and the donepezil treatment groups, with the latter having more frequency of vomiting.²⁸

In a trial evaluating the efficacy of 30 mg/day saffron compared to the Alzheimer’s drug memantine on 68 moderate to severe Alzheimer’s patients over a period of 1 year, it was found that both treatment groups has similar outcomes.²⁹

It was found that similar to the pharmaceutical drugs used to control Alzheimer’s disease, saffron inhibits acetylcholinesterase activity, preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine which is responsible for communication between nerve cells, and in turn memory and learning.³⁰ In connection with memory and learning, a smaller placebo-controlled study on 20 participants over a period of 3 weeks found that saffron petal extract was able to improve the short-term memory capacity of visual stimuli.

Saffron and Age-Related Macular Degeneration

The Persian physician Al-Razi from the 10th century wrote a medical textbook titled The Comprehensive Book on Medicine and inside detailed the specific uses of saffron for ocular disorders such as cataracts, conjunctivitis, eye infection, and pain by formulating a collyrium (eye wash) containing saffron as an ingredient.³¹

Age-related macular degeneration is a retinal neurodegenerative disease that results in the loss of central vision in the later stages of the disease and is a leading cause of this type of vision loss in older adults.³²,³³Its pathophysiology is thought to be due to chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, with a higher risk factor associated with low antioxidant dietary intake.³⁴

Crocin and crocetin are carotenoid derivatives with the potential to be protective of cells damaged by oxidation associated with light damage.³⁵ Two studies were conducted and found that 20 mg of saffron taken daily over a period of either 3 or 11 months was found to improve retinal flicker sensitivity (a test to determine retinal changes). The results of the study suggested a neuroprotective effect on retinal cells that were protected from apoptosis, as well as photoreceptors being protected from retinal stress, with overall improved macular function.³⁶,³⁷  

Saffron and Premenstrual Syndrome

Premenstrual syndrome is characterized by experiencing symptoms at least 5 days before menses and includes depression, anxiety, and other mood changes, insomnia, fatigue, tender breasts, cramps, pains, and food cravings, to list a few. A placebo-controlled clinical study following 50 women experiencing PMS symptoms for at least 6 months was found to have relief from symptoms after consuming 15mg of saffron petal extract twice daily over a period of two months with effects lasting up to 6 months. The results showed that the saffron treatment group had a 50% reduction in symptoms between the 3rd and 4th menstrual cycle after treatment.³⁸

Saffron for Respiratory System Support

In Erzincan, Turkey, saffron is boiled in water and used for respiratory ailments such as to support a cough, asthma, and bronchitis.³⁹ While there have not been human clinical trials conducted at this time, saffron may prove to be beneficial as a support for conditions such as asthma, COPD, as well as other respiratory conditions.

Both in vivo and in vitro studies have found that saffron stigma and safranal extract displayed bronchodilatory effects through the suggested mechanisms of inhibiting muscarinic and histamine receptors and stimulating β-2 adrenoreceptors.⁴⁰

In a study on 80 participants with allergic asthma over a period of 8 weeks, a treatment group taking 100 mg of saffron daily was compared to a control group. The saffron treatment group was found to have a significant reduction in HSP70 concentrations, which is a marker for asthma severity, and eosinophils, the immune cells responsible for promoting an allergic reaction compared to the placebo group that saw an increase in these concentrations. In addition, the spirometry test conducted found improvements in the pulmonary volumes such as the forced expiratory volume, forced expiratory flow, and forced vital capacity.⁴¹

Saffron for Immune Support

Saffron was found to have temporary immunomodulatory effects in a study on 44 men taking 100 mg of saffron tablets for a period of 6 weeks. The findings were that IgG levels increased, which has been associated with improving the secondary immune response of antibodies in the body. There was an increase in monocytes, an antigen-presenting cell, compared with baseline for the saffron treatment group.⁴² 

Saffron as Food

The fragrance, color, and taste of saffron make it a wonderful addition to dishes and desserts. A small amount of saffron goes a long way when cooking with it. The Yinshan Zhegyao, translated as the dietary principles, is a classic book written by the dietitian and therapist Hu Sihui during the Chinese Yuan dynasty on Chinese cuisine that contains 136 recipes that include saffron as an ingredient.⁴³

The most known dish in Persian cuisine is called zereshk polo, which is a savory, sweet and sour basmati rice topped with saffron-infused rice and decorated with barberries. Another is a Spanish dish, paella, that is made up of saffron rice mixed with vegetables and a protein. On the sweeter side, there is the shrikhand from India, a yogurt-based dessert with cardamom and saffron. One of my favorites is the Persian saffron pudding sholeh zard, as well as an ice cream in Iran called bastani sonnati that contains saffron, rosewater and pistachios.

Constituents

Saffron contains a number of compounds with medicinal properties mostly in the stigma of the plant, but there has been growing research showing the therapeutic benefits of the petals. The compounds included are carotenoids such as crocetin and crocin, kaempferol, monoterpene aldehydes, phenolics and flavonoids.⁴⁴ Crocin gives saffron its distinctive red-orange color and safranal gives its unique aroma, whereas picrocrocin is the compound that gives its bitter flavor.⁴⁵ One thing to caution about saffron is that due to its price, it is one of the most at-risk for adulteration, especially in the ground-up form, with other herbs such as safflower, calendula, and turmeric.⁴⁶

Harvesting Tips

The reason saffron is the world’s most expensive spice is due to the method of harvesting the stigma traditionally by hand in the majority of countries in a short window of time. In order to produce 1 pound of the stigmas, 75,000 saffron flowers would need to be gathered and 150 dry stigmas need to be gathered to measure 1 gram.^47,48

The saffron corms are planted in June, and an autumn harvest of the flowers is done in either October or November.⁴⁹ The flowers are hand-picked early in the morning either before or just as the flower opens by cutting just below the flower corolla.⁵⁰ Exposure of the stigmas to sunlight and windy conditions may reduce the quality and volatile components, which is why they are picked in this specific time frame.^51,52

Once the flowers are collected, the stigmas are removed from the style through the most time-consuming process of “peeling.”^53,54 The stigmas may be dried through different methods depending on the country and processing facility, but one such method is drying them over oak-wood charcoal.⁵⁵

 

Preparation Tips

• Infusion: 125 mg of ground saffron in 1 cup of boiled water, steeped covered for at least 1 hour.
• Tincture: 1:10 in 40% alcohol, 5–20 drops three times a day.⁵⁶
• Capsule: 30 mg saffron capsule taken once a day.
• Food: The process of blooming saffron can be used by grinding up approximately 1/2 tsp of saffron or less and then adding 2 ice cubes to allow for the saffron to infuse until the ice melts down to room temperature. What this does is extract the golden orange-red color while maintaining the flavor and aroma of the saffron.

 

 

Special Considerations

• It is not considered safe to use saffron during pregnancy at a high therapeutic dose due to being an abortifacient, but it is considered safe for use in cooking.
• The maximum daily dose of saffron is 1.5 g a day.⁵⁷
• Saffron may inhibit platelet adhesion and caution should be exhibited on those taking anticoagulant medications or with blood coagulation disorders.⁵⁸
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Summary

Saffron is an herb of long standing luxury that brings forth several benefits to the body systems, such as acting as an antidepressant, digestive system support, and neuroprotectant supporting conditions such as Alzheimer’s disease. In the literature, I found that saffron exerts its medicinal effects primarily through its properties as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiproliferative. It is of great value to use saffron both as a medicine and food in order to act as a preventative and support for different ailments while appreciating its appetizing quality through its rich color, taste, and aroma.  

 

Written by Nada Beydoun

Nada Beydoun is a registered herbalist with a BSc. in Microbiology and Immunology and Masters in Applied Human Nutrition. Her interests include SWANA region herbal medicines, and she has a community work background in refugee settlement and empowerment. You can follow her plant journey on Instagram @beybotany or her other socials here.